Introduction
Following the fragmentation of Harshavardhana's empire (7th century CE), North India entered a period
often termed "early medieval" — characterised by regional kingdoms, a prolonged three-way
contest for the strategic city of Kannauj, and debates among historians over the
emergence of "Indian feudalism."
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Image space — add illustration here
Suggested: A map of India c. 8th-9th century CE showing the Pala, Pratihara, and Rashtrakuta territories
Suggested visual: Map of the Tripartite Struggle powers
The Tripartite Struggle for Kannauj
Flowchart — Three Contestants for Kannauj
Palas (Bengal/Bihar) — Dharmapala, Devapala
Gurjara-Pratiharas (Malwa/North India) — Nagabhata II, Mihira Bhoja
Rashtrakutas (Deccan) — Dhruva, Govinda III
Kannauj was contested for its strategic and symbolic significance as the erstwhile Vardhana/Harsha capital, controlling the fertile Gangetic plains.
Key Dynasties
| Dynasty | Capital | Key Ruler | Key Facts |
|---|
| Pala | Monghyr / Pataliputra region | Dharmapala | Founded by Gopala; patronised Buddhism; founded Vikramashila University (Chapter 24, Ancient History); Pala rulers were significant patrons of Mahayana/Vajrayana Buddhist art, later influencing Southeast Asia and Tibet |
| Gurjara-Pratihara | Kannauj | Mihira Bhoja | Successfully defended North India against early Arab incursions from the west for a considerable period; patronised Hindu temple architecture |
| Rashtrakuta | Manyakheta (Malkhed) | Amoghavarsha I, Krishna I | Overthrew the Chalukyas of Badami (Dantidurga); built the monolithic Kailasa Temple at Ellora (Krishna I); patronised Kannada and Sanskrit literature |
Debate on "Indian Feudalism"
- Historians like R.S. Sharma argue that this period saw the emergence of a genuinely "feudal" structure — marked by extensive land grants to religious/secular beneficiaries, decline of trade and coinage, and a self-sufficient rural economy.
- Other historians (e.g., B.D. Chattopadhyaya, Harbans Mukhia) contest the direct comparison to European feudalism, pointing to continued (if reduced) trade, urban centres, and regional variation.
⚖️ Balanced View: Most contemporary historians accept that significant structural change occurred (increased land grants, more decentralised administration) without necessarily endorsing a strict "feudalism" label borrowed wholesale from the European historical model.
Other Regional Developments
- Continued flourishing of the Chola, Chalukya (Kalyani branch, later Western Chalukyas), and other southern dynasties (already covered in Ancient History chapters, given their overlap into this period).
- Rise of numerous Rajput clans (Chauhans, Chandelas, Paramaras, Solankis) across Rajasthan, Central India, and Gujarat — setting the stage for their prominent role during the Turkish invasions (next chapter) and covered in more detail in the Rajput States chapter.
✅ UPSC Focus: Three Tripartite Struggle contestants and their capitals · Rashtrakuta construction of the Ellora Kailasa Temple · R.S. Sharma's Indian feudalism thesis and its critics · Pratihara resistance against early Arab incursions.